The ______ Theory Is the Belief That Intelligence Is Not Fixed and Can Be Improved Upon With Effort.
Chapter ten. Intelligence and Linguistic communication
x.1 Defining and Measuring Intelligence
Learning Objectives
- Define intelligence and list the different types of intelligences psychologists study.
- Summarize the characteristics of a scientifically valid intelligence test.
- Outline the biological and environmental determinants of intelligence.
Psychologists accept long debated how to best conceptualize and measure intelligence (Sternberg, 2003). These questions include how many types of intelligence there are, the office of nature versus nurture in intelligence, how intelligence is represented in the brain, and the meaning of group differences in intelligence.
General (one thousand) versus Specific (s) Intelligences
In the early 1900s, the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857-1914) and his colleague Henri Simon (1872-1961) began working in Paris to develop a measure out that would differentiate students who were expected to be better learners from students who were expected to exist slower learners. The goal was to help teachers better educate these two groups of students. Binet and Simon developed what most psychologists today regard as the kickoff intelligence test (Figure 10.i, "Intelligence Tests in Schools"), which consisted of a wide variety of questions that included the power to proper noun objects, ascertain words, describe pictures, complete sentences, compare items, and construct sentences.
Binet and Simon (Binet, Simon, & Boondocks, 1915; Siegler, 1992) believed that the questions they asked their students, even though they were on the surface different, all assessed the basic abilities to understand, reason, and make judgments. And it turned out that the correlations amid these different types of measures were in fact all positive; students who got one item correct were more likely to as well get other items correct, even though the questions themselves were very different.
On the basis of these results, the psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) hypothesized that in that location must be a single underlying construct that all of these items measure. He called the construct that the unlike abilities and skills measured on intelligence tests have in common the general intelligence factor (g). Virtually all psychologists now believe that there is a generalized intelligence factor, yard, that relates to abstract thinking and that includes the abilities to acquire noesis, to reason abstractly, to adapt to novel situations, and to benefit from didactics and experience (Gottfredson, 1997; Sternberg, 2003). People with higher general intelligence larn faster.
Soon after Binet and Simon introduced their exam, the American psychologist Lewis Terman (1877-1956) developed an American version of Binet'south examination that became known equally the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. The Stanford-Binet is a measure of full general intelligence made upward of a wide multifariousness of tasks including vocabulary, retentivity for pictures, naming of familiar objects, repeating sentences, and following commands.
Although in that location is general agreement amid psychologists that g exists, at that place is also show for specific intelligence (s), a measure of specific skills in narrow domains. One empirical result in support of the thought of southward comes from intelligence tests themselves. Although the different types of questions practise correlate with each other, some items correlate more highly with each other than do other items; they form clusters or clumps of intelligences.
One stardom is between fluid intelligence, which refers to the capacity to larn new ways of solving problems and performing activities, and crystallized intelligence, which refers to the accumulated noesis of the earth we take caused throughout our lives (Salthouse, 2004). These intelligences must be different because crystallized intelligence increases with age — older adults are as good every bit or better than young people in solving crossword puzzles — whereas fluid intelligence tends to decrease with historic period (Horn, Donaldson, & Engstrom, 1981; Salthouse, 2004).
Other researchers have proposed even more types of intelligences. L. L. Thurstone (1938) proposed that there were seven clusters of main mental abilities, fabricated up of word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical power, anterior reasoning, and memory. Just even these dimensions tend to be at to the lowest degree somewhat correlated, showing again the importance of g.
I advocate of the idea of multiple intelligences is the psychologist Robert Sternberg. Sternberg has proposed a triarchic (three-part) theory of intelligence that proposes that people may display more or less analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and applied intelligence. Sternberg (1985, 2003) argued that traditional intelligence tests appraise analytical intelligence, the ability to answer problems with a single right answer, but that they do not well assess creativity (the ability to adapt to new situations and create new ideas) or practicality (due east.g., the ability to write proficient memos or to effectively delegate responsibility).
As Sternberg proposed, research has constitute that creativity is not highly correlated with analytical intelligence (Furnham & Bachtiar, 2008), and uncommonly creative scientists, artists, mathematicians, and engineers do not score higher on intelligence than practise their less creative peers (Simonton, 2000). Furthermore, the brain areas that are associated with convergent thinking, thinking that is directed toward finding the correct answer to a given problem, are different from those associated with divergent thinking, the ability to generate many different ideas for or solutions to a single problem (Tarasova, Volf, & Razoumnikova, 2010), every bit suggested by Effigy 10.2, "Test Your Divergent Thinking." On the other hand, being creative ofttimes takes some of the bones abilities measured by m, including the abilities to learn from feel, to remember data, and to recall abstractly (Bink & Marsh, 2000).
Studies of creative people suggest at to the lowest degree five components that are probable to be important for creativity:
- Expertise. Creative people take advisedly studied and know a lot about the topic that they are working in. Creativity comes with a lot of difficult work (Ericsson, 1998; Weisberg, 2006).
- Imaginative thinking. Creative people often view a trouble in a visual way, allowing them to see it from a new and unlike point of view.
- Risk taking. Artistic people are willing to accept on new but potentially risky approaches.
- Intrinsic interest. Creative people tend to piece of work on projects because they beloved doing them, not because they are paid for them. In fact, research has found that people who are paid to be artistic are ofttimes less creative than those who are not (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010).
- Working in a creative environment. Inventiveness is in function a social phenomenon. Simonton (1992) found that the well-nigh creative people were supported, aided, and challenged by other people working on like projects.
The final aspect of the triarchic model, practical intelligence, refers primarily to intelligence that cannot exist gained from books or formal learning. Practical intelligence represents a type of street smarts or common sense that is learned from life experiences. Although a number of tests have been devised to measure out practical intelligence (Sternberg, Wagner, & Okagaki, 1993; Wagner & Sternberg, 1985), research has not plant much evidence that practical intelligence is distinct from k or that it is predictive of success at any item tasks (Gottfredson, 2003). Practical intelligence may include, at least in part, certain abilities that assist people perform well at specific jobs, and these abilities may not always exist highly correlated with general intelligence (Sternberg, Wagner, & Okagaki, 1993). On the other hand, these abilities or skills are very specific to detail occupations and thus practise not seem to represent the broader idea of intelligence.
Another champion of the idea of multiple intelligences is the psychologist Howard Gardner (1983, 1999). Gardner argued that information technology would be evolutionarily functional for different people to have unlike talents and skills, and proposed that in that location are viii intelligences that can exist differentiated from each other (Table 10.1, "Howard Gardner'due south Eight Specific Intelligences"). Gardner noted that some prove for multiple intelligences comes from the abilities of autistic savants, people who score depression on intelligence tests overall simply who nonetheless may have infrequent skills in a given domain, such every bit math, music, art, or in being able to recite statistics in a given sport (Treffert & Wallace, 2004).
| [Skip Table] | |
| Intelligence | Description |
|---|---|
| Linguistic | The ability to speak and write well |
| Logico-mathematical | The ability to employ logic and mathematical skills to solve problems |
| Spatial | The ability to think and reason about objects in three dimensions |
| Musical | The ability to perform and relish music |
| Kinesthetic (trunk) | The ability to motion the body in sports, dance, or other physical activities |
| Interpersonal | The ability to sympathize and interact effectively with others |
| Intrapersonal | The ability to have insight into the self |
| Naturalistic | The ability to recognize, identify, and understand animals, plants, and other living things |
The idea of multiple intelligences has been influential in the field of education, and teachers accept used these ideas to attempt to teach differently to different students (Figure 10.3, "Intelligence"). For case, to teach math problems to students who have particularly good kinesthetic intelligence, a teacher might encourage the students to motility their bodies or hands co-ordinate to the numbers. On the other hand, some have argued that these intelligences sometimes seem more like abilities or talents rather than real intelligence. And at that place is no clear decision about how many intelligences in that location are. Are sense of humour, creative skills, dramatic skills, and so forth also dissever intelligences? Furthermore, and again demonstrating the underlying ability of a single intelligence, the many unlike intelligences are in fact correlated and thus stand for, in part, g (Brody, 2003).
Measuring Intelligence: Standardization and the Intelligence Caliber
The goal of most intelligence tests is to measure 1000, the general intelligence factor. Good intelligence tests are reliable, meaning that they are consequent over time, and also demonstrate construct validity, significant that they actually measure out intelligence rather than something else. Because intelligence is such an important individual deviation dimension, psychologists have invested substantial effort in creating and improving measures of intelligence, and these tests are now the nigh accurate of all psychological tests. In fact, the power to accurately appraise intelligence is one of the most important contributions of psychology to everyday public life.
Intelligence changes with age. A three-year-old who could accurately multiply 183 by 39 would certainly be intelligent, but a 25-year-former who could non do so would be seen as unintelligent. Thus understanding intelligence requires that we know the norms or standards in a given population of people at a given age. The standardization of a examination involves giving it to a large number of people at dissimilar ages and calculating the average score on the examination at each historic period level.
It is important that intelligence tests be standardized on a regular basis because the overall level of intelligence in a population may alter over time. The Flynn effect refers to the ascertainment that scores on intelligence tests worldwide have increased substantially over the by decades (Flynn, 1999). Although the increase varies somewhat from country to country, the average increase is about three intelligence (IQ) points every x years. In that location are many explanations for the Flynn event, including meliorate nutrition, increased access to information, and more familiarity with multiple-choice tests (Neisser, 1998). But whether people are really getting smarter is debatable (Neisser, 1997).
One time the standardization has been accomplished, we have a picture of the average abilities of people at dissimilar ages and can calculate a person's mental historic period, which is the age at which a person is performing intellectually. If we compare the mental age of a person to the person's chronological age, the result is the IQ, a mensurate of intelligence that is adjusted for age. A uncomplicated way to summate IQ is past using the following formula:
IQ = mental age ÷ chronological age × 100.
Thus a 10-year-erstwhile kid who does as well as the boilerplate 10-year-quondam child has an IQ of 100 (ten ÷ 10 × 100), whereas an 8-year-old kid who does equally well as the boilerplate 10-year-old kid would take an IQ of 125 (10 ÷ eight × 100). About modern intelligence tests are based the relative position of a person's score among people of the aforementioned historic period, rather than on the ground of this formula, but the idea of an intelligence ratio or caliber provides a good description of the score's meaning.
A number of scales are based on the IQ. The Wechsler Adult lntelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most widely used intelligence test for adults (Watkins, Campbell, Nieberding, & Authentication, 1995). The current version of the WAIS, the WAIS-IV, was standardized on 2,200 people ranging from 16 to 90 years of historic period. It consists of 15 different tasks, each designed to appraise intelligence, including working memory, arithmetic ability, spatial ability, and general knowledge about the globe (see Figure 10.iv, "Sample Items from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)"). The WAIS-IV yields scores on four domains: verbal, perceptual, working retentivity, and processing speed. The reliability of the test is high (more than 0.95), and it shows substantial construct validity. The WAIS-IV is correlated highly with other IQ tests such as the Stanford-Binet, as well as with criteria of academic and life success, including grades, measures of work performance, and occupational level. It also shows significant correlations with measures of everyday functioning among those with intellectual disabilities.
The Wechsler scale has also been adapted for preschool children in the form of the Wechsler Main and Preschool Calibration of Intelligence (WPPSI-III) and for older children and adolescents in the form of the Wechsler Intelligence Calibration for Children (WISC-Iv).
The intelligence tests that you may be about familiar with are aptitude tests, which are designed to measure i'south power to perform a given chore, such as doing well in undergraduate, graduate, or postal service-graduate training. Canadian post-secondary institutions request official high schoolhouse transcripts demonstrating minimum course admission requirements, while most American colleges and universities require students to take the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) or the American College Test (ACT). Post-graduate schools in both countries require the Graduate Record Exam (GRE), Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT), Medical College Admissions Exam (MCAT), or the Law Schoolhouse Admission Test (LSAT). These tests are useful for selecting students considering they predict success in the programs that they are designed for, particularly in the first year of the program (Kuncel, Hezlett, & Ones, 2010). These aptitude tests likewise measure out, in function, intelligence. Frey and Detterman (2004) institute that the Sabbatum correlated highly (betwixt about r = .7 and r = .8) with standard measures of intelligence.
Intelligence tests are too used past industrial and organizational psychologists in the process of personnel selection. Personnel choice is the use of structured tests to select people who are likely to perform well at given jobs (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). The psychologists begin by conducting a chore analysis in which they determine what knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal characteristics (KSAPs) are required for a given job. This is unremarkably accomplished by surveying and/or interviewing current workers and their supervisors. Based on the results of the job analysis, the psychologists choose choice methods that are almost probable to be predictive of chore performance. Measures include tests of cognitive and physical ability and job noesis tests, too as measures of IQ and personality.
The Biology of Intelligence
The encephalon processes underlying intelligence are not completely understood, but electric current research has focused on four potential factors: encephalon size, sensory ability, speed and efficiency of neural manual, and working retention capacity.
In that location is at least some truth to the idea that smarter people have bigger brains. Studies that take measured encephalon volume using neuroimaging techniques observe that larger brain size is correlated with intelligence (McDaniel, 2005), and intelligence has also been found to be correlated with the number of neurons in the brain and with the thickness of the cortex (Haier, 2004; Shaw et al., 2006). Information technology is important to remember that these correlational findings do not mean that having more encephalon volume causes college intelligence. It is possible that growing up in a stimulating surroundings that rewards thinking and learning may pb to greater brain growth (Garlick, 2003), and information technology is likewise possible that a third variable, such equally amend nutrition, causes both brain book and intelligence.
Another possibility is that the brains of more intelligent people operate faster or more efficiently than the brains of the less intelligent. Some show supporting this idea comes from data showing that people who are more than intelligent ofttimes prove less encephalon activity (suggesting that they need to utilise less capacity) than those with lower intelligence when they work on a task (Haier, Siegel, Tang, & Abel, 1992). And the brains of more intelligent people also seem to run faster than the brains of the less intelligent. Research has institute that the speed with which people can perform simple tasks — such as determining which of two lines is longer or pressing, as chop-chop as possible, one of eight buttons that is lighted — is predictive of intelligence (Deary, Der, & Ford, 2001). Intelligence scores likewise correlate at about r = .five with measures of working memory (Ackerman, Beier, & Boyle, 2005), and working memory is now used as a measure out of intelligence on many tests.
Although intelligence is not located in a specific part of the brain, information technology is more prevalent in some brain areas than others. Duncan et al. (2000) administered a variety of intelligence tasks and observed the places in the cortex that were most agile. Although different tests created different patterns of activation, as y'all can see in Effigy ten.5, "Where Is Intelligence?", these activated areas were primarily in the outer parts of the cortex, the area of the brain most involved in planning, executive control, and short-term retention.
Is Intelligence Nature or Nurture?
Intelligence has both genetic and ecology causes, and these take been systematically studied through a large number of twin and adoption studies (Neisser et al., 1996; Plomin, 2003). These studies have institute that between 40% and eighty% of the variability in IQ is due to genetics, pregnant that overall, genetics plays a bigger role than surround does in creating IQ differences among individuals (Plomin & Spinath, 2004). The IQs of identical twins correlate very highly (r = .86), much college than do the scores of fraternal twins who are less genetically similar (r = .60). And the correlations between the IQs of parents and their biological children (r = .42) is significantly greater than the correlation between parents and adopted children (r = .19). The function of genetics gets stronger as children go older. The intelligence of very young children (less than 3 years old) does non predict developed intelligence, only by historic period seven it does, and IQ scores remain very stable in adulthood (Deary, Whiteman, Starr, Whalley, & Play a joke on, 2004).
But there is likewise bear witness for the role of nurture, indicating that individuals are not born with fixed, unchangeable levels of intelligence. Twins raised together in the same home have more like IQs than practice twins who are raised in different homes, and congenial twins take more like IQs than practise nontwin siblings, which is likely due to the fact that they are treated more similarly than nontwin siblings are.
The fact that intelligence becomes more stable as nosotros become older provides evidence that early ecology experiences matter more than than later ones. Environmental factors besides explain a greater proportion of the variance in intelligence for children from lower-class households than they exercise for children from upper-form households (Turkheimer, Haley, Waldron, D'Onofrio, & Gottesman, 2003). This is because nigh upper-course households tend to provide a safe, nutritious, and supporting environment for children, whereas these factors are more than variable in lower-class households.
Social and economic deprivation tin can adversely affect IQ. Children from households in poverty accept lower IQs than practice children from households with more resources even when other factors such as education, race, and parenting are controlled (Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997). Poverty may lead to diets that are undernourishing or lacking in appropriate vitamins, and poor children may too be more likely to be exposed to toxins such as lead in drinking h2o, dust, or pigment fries (Bellinger & Needleman, 2003). Both of these factors can boring brain development and reduce intelligence.
If impoverished environments can damage intelligence, we might wonder whether enriched environments can improve it. Authorities-funded after-schoolhouse programs such as Caput Start are designed to assist children acquire. Enquiry has found that attention such programs may increase intelligence for a short time, but these increases rarely last after the programs end (McLoyd, 1998; Perkins & Grotzer, 1997). But other studies suggest that Head Kickoff and similar programs may better emotional intelligence and reduce the likelihood that children will drop out of school or be held back a grade (Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, & Isle of mann 2001).
Intelligence is improved by education; the number of years a person has spent in school correlates at nearly r = .vi with IQ (Ceci, 1991). In part this correlation may be due to the fact that people with higher IQ scores enjoy taking classes more than people with low IQ scores, and thus they are more than probable to stay in school. But teaching too has a causal effect on IQ. Comparisons between children who are almost exactly the aforementioned historic period only who but do or just do not make a deadline for entering school in a given school year show that those who enter schoolhouse a year earlier have higher IQ than those who have to look until the next yr to brainstorm school (Baltes & Reinert, 1969; Ceci & Williams, 1997). Children'due south IQs tend to drop significantly during summer vacations (Huttenlocher, Levine, & Vevea, 1998), a finding that suggests that a longer school yr, as is used in Europe and East Asia, is beneficial.
Information technology is of import to recall that the relative roles of nature and nurture can never be completely separated. A kid who has college than average intelligence will be treated differently than a child who has lower than boilerplate intelligence, and these differences in behaviours will probable amplify initial differences. This ways that modest genetic differences can be multiplied into large differences over time.
Psychology in Everyday Life: Emotional Intelligence
Although about psychologists accept considered intelligence a cerebral ability, people likewise employ their emotions to help them solve problems and chronicle effectively to others. Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to accurately identify, assess, and understand emotions, likewise as to effectively control i's ain emotions (Feldman-Barrett & Salovey, 2002; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000).
The idea of emotional intelligence is seen in Howard Gardner'southward interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to empathize the emotions, intentions, motivations, and desires of other people) and intrapersonal intelligence (the chapters to understand oneself, including 1's emotions). Public involvement in, and enquiry on, emotional intellgence became widely prevalent following the publication of Daniel Goleman's best-selling volume,Working with emotional intelligence (1998).
In that location are a variety of measures of emotional intelligence (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008; Petrides & Furnham, 2000). 1 popular measure, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Exam (http://world wide web.emotionaliq.org), includes items well-nigh the ability to understand, experience, and manage emotions, such as these:
- What mood(s) might be helpful to experience when meeting in-laws for the very start fourth dimension?
- Tom felt anxious and became a bit stressed when he thought well-nigh all the work he needed to do. When his supervisor brought him an boosted project, he felt ____ (fill in the blank).
- Contempt well-nigh closely combines which two emotions?
- anger and fright
- fear and surprise
- disgust and anger
- surprise and disgust
- Debbie only came dorsum from vacation. She was feeling peaceful and content. How well would each of the following deportment aid her preserve her good mood?
- Action 1: She started to make a list of things at home that she needed to exercise.
- Activity 2: She began thinking about where and when she would go along her next vacation.
- Action 3: She decided it was all-time to ignore the feeling since it wouldn't last anyway.
1 problem with emotional intelligence tests is that they often do not testify a great deal of reliability or construct validity (Føllesdal & Hagtvet, 2009). Although it has been found that people with higher emotional intelligence are also healthier (Martins, Ramalho, & Morin, 2010), findings are mixed near whether emotional intelligence predicts life success — for instance, task operation (Harms & Credé, 2010). Furthermore, other researchers have questioned the construct validity of the measures, arguing that emotional intelligence really measures noesis almost what emotions are, just not necessarily how to use those emotions (Brody, 2004), and that emotional intelligence is actually a personality trait, a part of g, or a skill that tin be applied in some specific work situations — for case, academic and work situations (Landy, 2005).
Although measures of the ability to empathise, experience, and manage emotions may non predict effective behaviours, some other important attribute of emotional intelligence —emotion regulation— does. Emotion regulation refers to the ability to control and productively apply 1's emotions. Enquiry has found that people who are amend able to override their impulses to seek immediate gratification and who are less impulsive also accept higher cognitive and social intelligence. They have better test scores, are rated by their friends every bit more than socially good, and cope with frustration and stress better than those with less skill at emotion regulation (Ayduk et al., 2000; Eigsti et al., 2006; Mischel & Ayduk, 2004).
Because emotional intelligence seems and so important, many schoolhouse systems accept designed programs to teach information technology to their students. However, the effectiveness of these programs has not been rigorously tested, and we practice not even so know whether emotional intelligence tin can be taught, or if learning it would ameliorate the quality of people'south lives (Mayer & Cobb, 2000).
Cardinal Takeaways
- Intelligence is the ability to think, to larn from experience, to solve issues, and to suit to new situations. Intelligence is important because it has an bear on on many human behaviours.
- Psychologists believe that at that place is a construct, known every bit general intelligence (g), that accounts for the overall differences in intelligence amidst people.
- At that place is also testify for specific intelligences (s), which are measures of specific skills in narrow domains, including creativity and practical intelligence.
- The intelligence quotient (IQ) is a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age. The Wechsler Adult lntelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most widely used IQ examination for adults.
- Brain volume, speed of neural transmission, and working retention capacity are related to IQ.
- Between forty% and 80% of the variability in IQ is due to genetics, significant that overall genetics plays a bigger function than surroundings does in creating IQ differences among individuals.
- Intelligence is improved by education and may be hindered by environmental factors such as poverty.
- Emotional intelligence refers to the power to identify, assess, manage, and control one's emotions. People who are better able to regulate their behaviours and emotions are also more successful in their personal and social encounters.
Exercises and Critical Thinking
- Consider your own IQ. Are you smarter than the boilerplate person? What specific intelligences do y'all remember you excel in?
- Did your parents try to improve your intelligence? Practise yous remember their efforts were successful?
- Consider the meaning of the Flynn effect. Do you think people are actually getting smarter?
- Give some examples of how emotional intelligence (or the lack of information technology) influences your everyday life and the lives of other people you know.
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Prototype Attributions
Effigy x.1: "The schoolhouse-boy doing his homework" by Moonsun1981 (http://eatables.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Az-Writing_boy_e-citizen.jpg) is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/past-sa/3.0/deed.en).
Figure 10.ii: "paper clip" by Hawyih (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wanzijia.jpg) is in the public domain.
Effigy 10.3: "Women heptathlon" past Marie-Lan Nguyen (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Women_heptathlon_LJ_French_Athletics_Championships_2013_t144221.jpg) is licensed under CC-BY 3.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/past/3.0/). "Street Painter" by Pedro Ribeiro Simões (http://www.flickr.com/photos/pedrosimoes7/190673196/) is licensed under CC Past two.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en_CA). "Vardan Mamikonyan Armenian pianist" past Chaojoker (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vardan_Mamikonyan_Armenian_pianist.JPG) is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en). "Teacher at Chalkboard" by cybrarian77 (http://www.flickr.com/photos/cybrarian77/6284181389/) is licensed under CC BY-NC two.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/deed.en_CA). "Klutz the Clown" by Herald Mail (http://www.flickr.com/photos/heraldpost/3771785750/) is licensed nether CC BY-NC two.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/deed.en_CA)
Effigy 10.4: Adapted from Thorndike & Hagen (1997).
Figure 10.5: Adapted from Duncan, et al. (2000).
Long Descirption
Figure 10.4 long description:
- What day of the twelvemonth is Independence Day?
- If eggs cost 60 cents a dozen, what does 1 egg cost?
- Tell me the meaning of "decadent."
- Why do people buy fire insurance?
- Say the following numbers after me: 7 3 4 1 eight 6
- Say the following numbers backwards: 3 8 4 1 vi
The concluding 2 questions involve making pictures out of blocks. [Return to Figure 10.4]
Source: https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/9-1-defining-and-measuring-intelligence/
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